A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into mechanical energy; a process known as wind power. If the mechanical energy is used to produce electricity, the device may be called a wind generator or wind charger. If the mechanical energy is used to drive machinery, such as for grinding grain or pumping water, the device is called a windmill or wind pump.
The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering, today's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging or auxiliary power on boats; while large grid-connected arrays of turbines are becoming an increasingly important source of wind power-produced commercial electricity.
[[PASTING TABLES IS NOT SUPPORTED]] History

Main article: History of wind power

James Blyth's electricity generating wind turbine photographed in 1891

Windmills were used in Persia (present-day Iran) as early as 200 B.C.[1] The windwheel of Heron of Alexandria marks one of the first known instances of wind powering a machine in history.[2][3] However, the first known practical windmills were built in Sistan, a region between Afghanistan and Iran, from the 7th century. These "Panemone" were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with rectangular blades.[4] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[5]
Windmills first appeared in Europe during the middle ages. The first historical records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th centuries and there are reports of German crusaders taking their windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190.[6] By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine delta.
The first electricity generating wind turbine, was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home in Marykirk, Scotland.[7] Some months later American inventor Charles F Brush built the first automatically operated wind turbine for electricity production in Cleveland, Ohio.[7] Although Blyth's turbine was considered uneconomical in the United Kingdom[7] electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries with widely scattered populations.[6]

The first automatically operated wind turbine, built in Cleveland in 1887 by Charles F. Brush. It was 60 feet (18 m) tall, weighed 4 tons (3.6 metric tonnes) and powered a 12kW generator.[8]

In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW. The largest machines were on 24-metre (79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23-metre (75 ft) diameter rotors. By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators operating in the US from 5 kW to 25 kW. Around the time of World War I, American windmill makers were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-pumping.[9] By the 1930s, wind generators for electricity were common on farms, mostly in the United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed. In this period, high-tensile steel was cheap, and the generators were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers.
A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in service at Yalta, USSR in 1931. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30-metre (98 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported to have an annual capacity factor of 32 per cent, not much different from current wind machines.[10] In the fall of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was synchronized to a utility grid in Vermont. The Smith-Putnam wind turbine only ran for 1,100 hours before suffering a critical failure. The unit was not repaired because of shortage of materials during the war.
The first utility grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built by John Brown & Company in 1951 in the Orkney Islands.[7][11]
Resources

Main article: Wind power

A quantitative measure of the wind energy available at any location is called the Wind Power Density (WPD) It is a calculation of the mean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is tabulated for different heights above ground. Calculation of wind power density includes the effect of wind velocity and air density. Color-coded maps are prepared for a particular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Meters". In the United States, the results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and referred to as "NREL CLASS". The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. Classes range from Class 1 (200 watts per square meter or less at 50 meters altitude) to Class 7 (800 to 2000 watts per square meter). Commercial wind farms generally are sited in Class 3 or higher areas, although isolated points in an otherwise Class 1 area may be practical to exploit.[12]
Types

The three primary types:VAWT Savonius, HAWT towered; VAWT Darrieus as they appear in operation

Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both older and more common.[13]
Horizontal axis

Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted into position

A turbine blade convoy passing through Edenfield, UK

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.[14]
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind of its supporting tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclical (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures, most HAWTs are of upwind design.
Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of over 320 km/h (200 mph), high efficiency, and low torque ripple, which contribute to good reliability. The blades are usually colored light gray to blend in with the clouds and range in length from 20 to 40 metres (66 to 130 ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to 90 metres (200 to 300 ft) tall. The blades rotate at 10 to 22 revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed exceeds 90 metres per second (300 ft/s).[15][16] A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator, although designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds, by feathering the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.
Vertical axis design

A vertical axis Twisted Savonius type turbine.

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable, for example when integrated into buildings. The key disadvantages include the low rotational speed with the consequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.[17]
With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, hence improving accessibility for maintenance.
When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence. It should be borne in mind that wind speeds within the built environment are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites.[18][19]
Another type of vertical axis is the Parallel turbine similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan it uses the ground effect. Vertical axis turbines of this type have been tried for many years: a large unit producing up to 10 kW was built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill in 1980s:[20] the device is mentioned in Dr. Moshe Dan Hirsch's 1990 report, which decided the Israeli energy department investments and support in the next 20 years.[citation needed] The Magenn WindKite blimp uses this configuration as well, chosen because of the ease of running.[21]
Subtypes of the vertical axis design include:
Darrieus wind turbine"Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus.[22] They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades which results in greater solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires but have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing.[23]GiromillA subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting.[24] The advantages of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a lower blade speed ratio; a higher coefficient of performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.[25]Savonius wind turbineThese are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers, Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops.Twisted SavoniusTwisted Savonius is a modified savonius, with long helical scoops to provide smooth torque. This is often used as a rooftop windturbine and has even been adapted for ships.[26] Design and construction

Main article: Wind turbine design

Components of a horizontal-axis wind turbine

Size comparison of a five year old child with an Enercon E-70 wind turbine rotor hub.

Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. Aerodynamic modelling is used to determine the optimum tower height, control systems, number of blades and blade shape.
Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components:

The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy.
The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the electrical generator, the control electronics, and most likely a gearbox (e.g. planetary gearbox,[27] adjustable-speed drive [28] or continuously variable transmission [29]) component for converting the low speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating electricity.
The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.[30]

A 1.5 MW wind turbine of a type frequently seen in the United States has a tower 80 metres (260 ft) high. The rotor assembly (blades and hub) weighs 48,000 pounds (22,000 kg). The nacelle, which contains the generator component, weighs 115,000 pounds (52,000 kg). The concrete base for the tower is constructed using 58,000 pounds (26,000 kg) of reinforcing steel and contains 250 cubic yards (190 m3) of concrete. The base is 50 ft (15 m) in diameter and 8 ft (2.4 m) thick near the center.[31]
Unconventional designs

Main article: Unconventional wind turbines

One E-66 wind turbine at Windpark Holtriem, Germany, carries an observation deck, open for visitors. Another turbine of the same type, with an observation deck, is located in Swaffham, England. Airborne wind turbines have been investigated many times but have yet to produce significant energy. Conceptually, wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with a large vertical solar updraft tower to extract the energy due to air heated by the sun.
Wind turbines which utilise the Magnus effect have been developed.[32]
The ram air turbine is a specialist form of small turbine that is fitted to some aircraft. When deployed, the RAT is spun by the airstream going past the aircraft and can provide power for the most essential systems if there is a loss of all on–board electrical power.[citation needed]
Small wind turbines

Main article: Small wind turbine

A small Quietrevolution QR5 Gorlov type vertical axis wind turbine in Bristol, England. Measuring 3m in diameter and 5m high, it has a nameplate rating of 6.5kW to the grid.

Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications including on- or off-grid residences, telecom towers, offshore platforms, rural schools and clinics, remote monitoring and other purposes that require energy where there is no electric grid, or where the grid is unstable. Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or caravan use. The U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) defines small wind turbines as those smaller than or equal to 100 kilowatts.[33] Small units often have direct drive generators, direct current output, aeroelastic blades, lifetime bearings and use a vane to point into the wind.
Larger, more costly turbines generally have geared power trains, alternating current output, flaps and are actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive generators and aeroelastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched.
Wind turbine spacing On most horizontal windturbine farms, a spacing of about 6-10 times the rotor diameter is often upheld. However, for large wind farms distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be more economically optimal, taking into account typical wind turbine and land costs. This conclusion has been reached by research[34] conducted by Charles Meneveau of the Johns Hopkins University,[35] and Johan Meyers of Leuven University in Belgium, based on computer simulations[36] that take into account the detailed interactions among wind turbines (wakes) as well as with the entire turbulent atmospheric boundary layer. Moreover, recent research by John Dabiri of Caltech suggests that vertical wind turbines may be placed much more closely together so long as an alternating pattern of rotation is created allowing blades of neighboring turbines to move in the same direction as they approach one another.[37]
Accidents Several cases occurred where the housings of wind turbines caught fire. As housings are normally out of the range of standard fire extinguishing equipment, it is nearly impossible to extinguish such fires on older turbine units which lack fire suppression systems. In several cases one or more blades were damaged or torn away.[38] In 2010 70 mph (110 km/h; 61 kn) storm winds damaged some blades, prompting blade removal and inspection of all 25 wind turbines in Campo Indian Reservation in the US State of California.[39] Several wind turbines also collapsed.
Severe wind turbine accidents have had relatively low impacts on the communities where the accidents occurred, compared with the widespread effects of accidents at nuclear and hydroelectric power plants.
[[PASTING TABLES IS NOT SUPPORTED]] Records

Fuhrländer Wind Turbine Laasow, the world's tallest wind turbine

Éole, the largest vertical axis wind turbine, in Cap-Chat, Quebec

Largest capacityThe Enercon E-126 has a rated capacity of 7.58 MW,[49] has an overall height of 198 m (650 ft), a diameter of 126 m (413 ft), and is the world's largest-capacity wind turbine since its introduction in 2007.[50] At least five companies are working on the development of a 10MW turbine.Largest swept areaThe turbine with the largest swept area is a prototype installed by Gamesa at Jaulín, Zaragoza, Spain in 2009. The G10X – 4.5 MW has a rotor diameter of 128m. [51]
TallestThe tallest wind turbine is Fuhrländer Wind Turbine Laasow. Its axis is 160 meters above ground and its rotor tips can reach a height of 205 meters. It is the only wind turbine in the world taller than 200 meters.[52]Largest vertical-axisLe Nordais wind farm in Cap-Chat, Quebec has a vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) named Éole, which is the world's largest at 110 m.[53] It has a nameplate capacity of 3.8MW.[54]Most southerlyThe turbines currently operating closest to the South Pole are three Enercon E-33 in Antarctica, powering New Zealand's Scott Base and the United States' McMurdo Station since December 2009[55][56] although a modified HR3 turbine from Northern Power Systems operated at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in 1997 and 1998.[57] In March 2010 CITEDEF designed, built and installed a wind turbine in Argentine Marambio Base.[58]Most productiveFour turbines at Rønland wind farm in Denmark share the record for the most productive wind turbines, with each having generated 63.2 GWh by June 2010[59]Highest-situatedThe world's highest-situated wind turbine is made by DeWind installed by the Seawind Group and located in the Andes, Argentina around 4,100 metres (13,500 ft) above sea level. The site uses a type D8.2 - 2000 kW / 50 Hz turbine. This turbine has a new drive train concept with a special torque converter (WinDrive) made by Voith and a synchronous generator. The WKA was put into operation in December 2007 and has supplied the Veladero mine of Barrick Gold with electricity since then.[60]Largest floating wind turbineThe world's largest—and also the first operational deep-water large-capacity—floating wind turbine is the 2.3 MW Hywind currently operating 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) offshore in 220-meter-deep water, southwest of Karmøy, Norway. The turbine began operating in September 2009 and utilizes a Siemens 2.3 MW turbine[61][62] See also

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References

^ "Part 1 — Early History Through 1875". Retrieved 2008-07-31.
^ A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", Centaurus, 7 (1961), pp. 145–151
^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp. 1–30 (10f.)
^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
^ Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering)
^ a b Morthorst, Poul Erik; Redlinger, Robert Y.; Andersen, Per (2002). Wind energy in the 21st century: economics, policy, technology and the changing electricity industry. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave/UNEP. ISBN 0-333-79248-3.
^ a b c d "James Blyth". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2009-10-09.
^ A Wind Energy Pioneer: Charles F. Brush. Danish Wind Industry Association. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
^ Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas
^ Alan Wyatt: Electric Power: Challenges and Choices. Book Press Ltd., Toronto 1986, ISBN 0-920650-00-7
^ Anon. "Costa Head Experimental Wind Turbine". Orkney Sustainable Energy Website. Orkney Sustainable Energy Ltd. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
^ http://www.nrel.gov/gis/wind.html
^ "Wind Energy Basics". American Wind Energy Association. Retrieved 2009-09-24.[dead link]
^ http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/comp/index.htm
^ http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/wind_turbines/en/15mw/specs.htm
^ http://www.aweo.org/windmodels.html
^ http://www.awsopenwind.org/downloads/documentation/ModelingUncertaintyPublic.pdf
^ http://www.scoraigwind.com/citywinds
^ http://www.urbanwind.net/pdf/technological_analysis.pdf
^ http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6481957.html
^ http://insourceoutsource.blogspot.com/2007_09_16_archive.html
^ http://www.symscape.com/blog/vertical_axis_wind_turbine
^ Exploit Nature-Renewable Energy Technologies by Gurmit Singh‏, Aditya Books, pp 378
^ http://www.awea.org/faq/vawt.html
^ http://www.springerlink.com/index/Y703547454T51180.pdf
^ Rob Varnon. Derecktor converting boat into hybrid passenger ferry, Connecticut Post website, December 2, 2010. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
^ http://www.hansentransmissions.com/en/hansen_w4.html
^ http://www.djtreal.com/variable+speed+gearbox+design.html
^ John Gardner, Nathaniel Haro and Todd Haynes (October 2011). Active Drivetrain Control to Improve Energy Capture of Wind Turbines. Boise State University. Retrieved 28 February 2012
^ "Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model", Technical Report NREL/TP-500-40566, December, 2006, page 35, 36
^ http://www.pomeroyiowa.com/windflyer.pdf
^ http://www.mecaro.jp/eng/introduction.html
^ Small Wind, U.S. Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory website
^ J. Meyers and C. Meneveau, "Optimal turbine spacing in fully developed wind farm boundary layers" (2011), Wind Energy doi:10.1002/we.469
^ Optimal spacing for wind turbines
^ M. Calaf, C. Meneveau and J. Meyers, "Large Eddy Simulation study of fully developed wind-turbine array boundary layers" (2010), Phys. Fluids 22, 015110
^ Dabiri, J. Potential order-of-magnitude enhancement of wind farm power density via counter-rotating vertical-axis wind turbine arrays (2011), J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043104
^ WindByte.co.uk website
^ Windstorm damage, SignOnSanDiego.com website
^ a b http://mitglied.multimania.de/WilfriedHeck/ellenst.htm
^ http://www.nowpublic.com/wind-turbine-collapse-kills-one-injures-second-worker-0
^ . http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cumbria/7168275.stml.[dead link]
^ http://ronslog.typepad.com/ronslog/2008/02/wind-energy.html
^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqEccgR0q-o
^ http://www.windaction.org/releases/18394
^ http://www.wptz.com/news/18870331/detail.html
^ a b http://www.windaction.org/pictures/24818
^ http://www.windaction.org/pictures/33794
^ http://www.enercon.de/p/downloads/EN_Produktuebersicht_0710.pdf
^ "New Record: World's Largest Wind Turbine (7+ Megawatts) — MetaEfficient Reviews". MetaEfficient.com. 2008-02-03. Retrieved 2010-04-17.
^ "Gamesa Presents G10X-4.5 MW Wind Turbine Prototype". Retrieved 2010-07-26.
^ "FL 2500 Noch mehr Wirtschaftlichkeit" (in German). Fuhrlaender AG. Retrieved 2009-11-05.
^ "Visits > Big wind turbine". Retrieved 2010-04-17.
^ "Wind Energy Power Plants in Canada - other provinces". 2010-06-05. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
^ Antarctica New Zealand
^ New Zealand Wind Energy Association
^ Bill Spindler, The first Pole wind turbine.
^ GENERADOR DE ENERGÍA EÓLICA EN LA ANTÁRTIDA
^ "Surpassing Matilda: record-breaking Danish wind turbines". Retrieved 2010-07-26.
^ http://www.voithturbo.com/vt_en_pua_windrive_project-report_2008.htm
^ Patel, Prachi (2009-06-22). "Floating Wind Turbines to Be Tested". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 2011-03-07. "will test how the 2.3-megawatt turbine holds up in 220-meter-deep water."
^ Madslien, Jorn (8 September 2009). "Floating challenge for offshore wind turbine". BBC News (BBC). Retrieved 2011-03-07. "world's first full-scale floating wind turbine"

Further reading

Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi: Wind Energy Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 1st edition (2001), ISBN 0-471-48997-2
Darrell, Dodge, Early History Through 1875, TeloNet Web Development, Copyright 1996–2001
David, Macaulay, New Way Things Work, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Copyright 1994–1999, pg.41-42
Erich Hau Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Birkhäuser, 2006 ISBN 3540242406 (preview on Google Books)
David Spera (ed,) Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts in Wind Turbine Engineering, Second Edition (2009), ASME Press, ISBN #: 9780791802601

External links [[PASTING TABLES IS NOT SUPPORTED]]

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Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm, at the entrance to the River Mersey in North West England

[[PASTING TABLES IS NOT SUPPORTED]] Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using: wind turbines to make electricity, windmills for mechanical power, windpumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships.
A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network. Offshore wind farms can harness more frequent and powerful winds than are available to land-based installations and have less visual impact on the landscape but construction costs are considerably higher. Small onshore wind facilities are used to provide electricity to isolated locations and utility companies increasingly buy back surplus electricity produced by small domestic wind turbines.
Although a variable source of power, the intermittency of wind seldom creates problems when used to supply up to 20% of total electricity demand, but as the proportion increases problems arise such as: increased costs, a need to use storage such as pumped-storage hydroelectricity, a need to upgrade the grid, or a lowered ability to supplant conventional production.[1][2][3] Power management techniques such as: excess capacity storage, dispatchable backing supply (usually natural gas), exporting and importing power to neighboring areas or reducing demand when wind production is low, can mitigate these problems.
Wind power, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed, clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation and uses little land.[4] The overall cost per unit of energy produced is similar to the cost for new coal and natural gas installations.[5] Any effects on the environment are generally less problematic than those from other power sources. Although wind power is a popular form of energy generation, the construction of wind farms is not universally welcomed.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12]
[[PASTING TABLES IS NOT SUPPORTED]] History

Main article: History of wind power

Medieval depiction of a wind mill

Blyth's "windmill" at his cottage in Marykirk in 1891

The first practical windmills were in use in Iran at least by the 9th century and possibly as early as the 7th century.[13] The use of windmills became widespread use across the Middle East and Central Asia, and later spread to China and India.[14] By 1000 AD, windmills were used to pump seawater for salt-making in China and Sicily.[15] Windmills were used extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour from the 1180s,[14] and windpumps were used to drain land for agriculture and for building.[16] Early immigrants to the New World brought the technology with them from Europe.[16]
In the US, the development of the "water-pumping windmill" was the major factor in allowing the farming and ranching of vast areas otherwise devoid of readily accessible water. Windpumps contributed to the expansion of rail transport systems throughout the world, by pumping water from water wells for steam locomotives.[17] The multi-bladed wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel was, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America.
Electricity generation In July 1887, a Scottish academic, Professor James Blyth, built a cloth-sailed wind turbine in the garden of his holiday cottage in Marykirk and used the electricity it produced to charge accumulators which he used to power the lights in his cottage.[18] His experiments culminated in a UK patent in 1891.[19] In the winter of 1887/8 US inventor Charles F. Brush produced electricity using a wind powered generator which powered his home and laboratory until about 1900. In the 1890s, the Danish scientist and inventor Poul la Cour constructed wind turbines to generate electricity, which was used to produce hydrogen and Oxygen by electrolysis and a mixture of the two gases was stored for use as a fuel.[19] La Cour was the first to discover that fast rotating wind turbines with fewer rotor blades were the most efficient in generating electricity and in 1904 he founded the Society of Wind Electricians.[20]
By the mid-1920s, 1 to 3-kilowatt wind generators developed by companies such as Parris-Dunn and Jacobs Wind-electric found widespread use in the rural areas of the midwestern Great Plains of the US but by the 1940s the demand for more power and the coming of the electrical grid throughout those areas made these small generators obsolete.[21]
During the 1920s the first vertical axis wind turbine was built by Frenchman George Darrieus and in 1931 a 100 kW precursor to the modern horizontal wind generator was used in Yalta, in the USSR. In 1956 Johannes Juul, a former student of la Cour, built a 200 kW, three-bladed turbine at Gedser in Denmark, which influenced the design af many later turbines.[20]
In 1975 the United States Department of Energy funded a project to develop utility-scale wind turbines. The NASA wind turbines project built thirteen experimental turbines which paved the way for much of the technology used today.[20] Since then, turbines have increased greatly in size with the Enercon E-126 capable of delivering up to 7 MW. Wind turbine production has expanded to many countries and wind power is expected to grow worldwide in the twenty-first century.[22]
Wind energy

Main article: Wind energy

Map of available wind power for the United States. Color codes indicate wind power density class.

Wind is the movement of air across the surface of the Earth, from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.[23] The surface of the Earth is heated unevenly by the Sun, depending on factors such as the angle of incidence of the sun's rays at the surface (which differs with latitude and time of day) and whether the land is open or covered with vegetation. Also, large bodies of water, such as the oceans, heat up and cool down slower than the land. The heat energy absorbed at the Earth's surface is transferred to the air directly above it and, as warmer air is less dense than cooler air, it rises above the cool air to form areas of high pressure and thus pressure differentials. The rotation of the Earth drags the atmosphere around with it causing turbulence. These effects combine to cause a constantly varying pattern of winds across the surface of the Earth.[23]
The total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources.[24] Axel Kleidon of the Max Planck Institute in Germany, carried out a "top down" calculation on how much wind energy there is, starting with the incoming solar radiation that drives the winds by creating temperature differences in the atmosphere. He concluded that somewhere between 18 TW and 68 TW could be extracted.[25] Cristina Archer and Mark Z. Jacobson presented a "bottom-up" estimate, which unlike Kleidon's are based on actual measurements of wind speeds, and found that there is 1700 TW of wind power at an altitude of 100 metres over land and sea. Of this, "between 72 and 170 TW could be extracted in a practical and cost-competitive manner".[25]
Distribution of wind speed

Distribution of wind speed (red) and energy (blue) for all of 2002 at the Lee Ranch facility in Colorado. The histogram shows measured data, while the curve is the Rayleigh model distribution for the same average wind speed.

The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there. To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a probability distribution function is often fit to the observed data. Different locations will have different wind speed distributions. The Weibull model closely mirrors the actual distribution of hourly wind speeds at many locations. The Weibull factor is often close to 2 and therefore a Rayleigh distribution can be used as a less accurate, but simpler model.
Wind farms

Main article: Wind farm

A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electricity. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may also be located offshore.
Almost all large wind turbines have the same design — a horizontal axis wind turbine having an upwind rotor with three blades, attached to a nacelle on top of a tall tubular tower. In a wind farm, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage (often 34.5 kV), power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this medium-voltage electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage electric power transmission system.
Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the US. As of November 2010, the Roscoe Wind Farm is the largest onshore wind farm in the world at 781.5 MW, followed by the Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center (735.5 MW). As of November 2010, the Thanet Wind Farm in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 300 MW, followed by Horns Rev II (209 MW) in Denmark.
There are many large wind farms under construction including; The London Array (offshore) (1000 MW), BARD Offshore 1 (400 MW), Sheringham Shoal Offshore Wind Farm (317 MW), Lincs Wind Farm (offshore, (270 MW)Shepherds Flat Wind Farm (845 MW), Clyde Wind Farm (548 MW), Greater Gabbard wind farm (500 MW), Macarthur Wind Farm (420 MW), Shepherds Flat Wind Farm (845 MW), Lower Snake River Wind Project (343 MW) and Walney Wind Farm (367 MW).
Feeding into grid Induction generators, often used for wind power, require reactive power for excitation so substations used in wind-power collection systems include substantial capacitor banks for power factor correction. Different types of wind turbine generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances, so extensive modelling of the dynamic electromechanical characteristics of a new wind farm is required by transmission system operators to ensure predictable stable behaviour during system faults (see: Low voltage ride through). In particular, induction generators cannot support the system voltage during faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous generators. Doubly fed machines generally have more desirable properties for grid interconnection.[citation needed] Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to specify the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid. This will include power factor, constancy of frequency and dynamic behavior of the wind farm turbines during a system fault.[26][27]
Offshore wind power

Main article: Offshore wind power

Aerial view of Lillgrund Wind Farm, Sweden

Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in large bodies of water to generate electricity. These installations can utilise the more frequent and powerful winds that are available in these locations and have less aesthetic impact on the landscape than land based projects but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher.[28][29] Currently, offshore wind farms are at least 3 times more expensive than onshore wind farms of the same nominal power[30] but these costs are expected to fall as the industry matures.[31]
Siemens and Vestas are the leading turbine suppliers for offshore wind power. DONG Energy, Vattenfall and E.ON are the leading offshore operators.[32] As of October 2010, 3.16 GW of offshore wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe. According to BTM Consult, more than 16 GW of additional capacity will be installed before the end of 2014 and the UK and Germany will become the two leading markets. Offshore wind power capacity is expected to reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020, with significant contributions from China and the US.[32]
Wind power capacity and production

Main article: Wind power by country

Worldwide installed wind power capacity (Source: GWEC)[33]

Worldwide there are now many thousands of wind turbines operating, with a total nameplate capacity of 238,351 MW as of end 2011.[34] World wind generation capacity more than quadrupled between 2000 and 2006, doubling about every three years. The United States pioneered wind farms and led the world in installed capacity in the 1980s and into the 1990s. In 1997 German installed capacity surpassed the U.S. and led until once again overtaken by the U.S. in 2008. China has been rapidly expanding its wind installations in the late 2000s and passed the U.S. in 2010 to become the world leader.
At the end of 2011, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind-powered generators was 238 gigawatts (GW), growing by 41 GW over the preceding year.[35] 2010 data from the World Wind Energy Association, an industry organization states that wind power now has the capacity to generate 430 TWh annually, which is about 2.5% of worldwide electricity usage.[36][37] Between 2005 and 2010 the average annual growth in new installations was 27.6 percent.[38] Wind power market penetration is expected to reach 3.35 percent by 2013 and 8 percent by 2018.[38][39] Several countries have already achieved relatively high levels of penetration, such as 28% of stationary (grid) electricity production in Denmark (2011),[40] 19% in Portugal (2011),[41] 16% in Spain (2011),[42] 14% in Ireland (2010)[43] and 8% in Germany (2011).[44] As of 2011, 83 countries around the world were using wind power on a commercial basis.[45]
Europe accounted for 48% of the world total wind power generation capacity in 2009. In 2010, Spain became Europe's leading producer of wind energy, achieving 42,976 GWh. Germany held the top spot in Europe in terms of installed capacity, with a total of 27,215 MW as of 31 December 2010.[46]
[[PASTING TABLES IS NOT SUPPORTED]] Growth trends

Worldwide installed capacity 1997–2020 [MW], developments and prognosis. Data source: WWEA[49]

Worldwide installed wind power capacity forecast (Source: Global Wind Energy Council)[33][50]

In 2010, more than half of all new wind power was added outside of the traditional markets in Europe and North America. This was largely from new construction in China, which accounted for nearly half the new wind installations (16.5 GW).[51]
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC) figures show that 2007 recorded an increase of installed capacity of 20 GW, taking the total installed wind energy capacity to 94 GW, up from 74 GW in 2006. Despite constraints facing supply chains for wind turbines, the annual market for wind continued to increase at an estimated rate of 37%, following 32% growth in 2006. In terms of economic value, the wind energy sector has become one of the important players in the energy markets, with the total value of new generating equipment installed in 2007 reaching €25 billion, or US$36 billion.[52]
Although the wind power industry was affected by the global financial crisis in 2009 and 2010, a BTM Consult five year forecast up to 2013 projects substantial growth. Over the past five years the average growth in new installations has been 27.6 percent each year. In the forecast to 2013 the expected average annual growth rate is 15.7 percent.[38][39] More than 200 GW of new wind power capacity could come on line before the end of 2013. Wind power market penetration is expected to reach 3.35 percent by 2013 and 8 percent by 2018.[38][39]

Typical components of a wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted into position

Capacity factor Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 20–40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites.[53][nb 1] Online data is available for some locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output.[54][55]
Unlike fueled generating plants the capacity factor is affected by several parameters, including the variability of the wind at the site but also the generator size. A small generator would be cheaper and achieve a higher capacity factor but would produce less electricity (and thus less profit) in high winds.[56] Conversely, a large generator would cost more but generate little extra power and, depending on the type, may stall out at low wind speed. Thus an optimum capacity factor would be aimed for, which is usually around 20–35%.
In a 2008 study released by the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, the capacity factor achieved by the U.S. wind turbine fleet is shown to be increasing as the technology improves. The capacity factor achieved by new wind turbines in 2004 and 2005 reached 36%.[57]
Penetration Wind energy penetration refers to the fraction of energy produced by wind compared with the total available generation capacity. There is no generally accepted maximum level of wind penetration. The limit for a particular grid will depend on the existing generating plants, pricing mechanisms, capacity for storage or demand management and other factors. An interconnected electricity grid will already include reserve generating and transmission capacity to allow for equipment failures. This reserve capacity can also serve to compensate for the varying power generation produced by wind plants. Studies have indicated that 20% of the total annual electrical energy consumption may be incorporated with minimal difficulty.[58] These studies have been for locations with geographically dispersed wind farms, some degree of dispatchable energy or hydropower with storage capacity, demand management, and interconnected to a large grid area enabling the export of electricity when needed. Beyond the 20 percent level, there are few technical limits, but the economic implications become more significant. Electrical utilities continue to study the effects of large (20% or more) scale penetration of wind generation on system stability and economics.[59][60][61][62]
A wind energy penetration figure can be specified for different durations of time. On an annual basis, as of 2011, few grid systems have penetration levels above five percent: Denmark - 26%, Portugal - 17%, Spain - 15%, Ireland - 14%, and Germany - 9%.[63] For the U.S. in 2011, the penetration level was estimated at 2.9%.[63]
Variability and intermittency

Main articles: Intermittent energy source and wind power forecasting

Windmills are typically installed in favourable windy locations. In the image, wind power generators in Spain, near an Osborne bull.

Electricity generated from wind power can be highly variable at several different timescales: hourly, daily, or seasonally. Annual variation also exists, but is not as significant. Like other electricity sources, wind energy must be scheduled. Wind power forecasting methods are used, but predictability of wind plant output remains low for short-term operation.[citation needed] Because instantaneous electrical generation and consumption must remain in balance to maintain grid stability, this variability can present substantial challenges to incorporating large amounts of wind power into a grid system. Intermittency and the non-dispatchable nature of wind energy production can raise costs for regulation, incremental operating reserve, and (at high penetration levels) could require an increase in the already existing energy demand management, load shedding, storage solutions or system interconnection with HVDC cables. At low levels of wind penetration, fluctuations in load and allowance for failure of large generating units require reserve capacity that can also compensae for variability of wind generation. Wind power can be replaced by other power sources during low wind periods. Transmission networks must already cope with outages of generation plant and daily changes in electrical demand. Systems with large wind capacity components may need more spinning reserve (plants operating at less than full load).[64][65]
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity or other forms of grid energy storage can store energy developed by high-wind periods and release it when needed.[66] Stored energy increases the economic value of wind energy since it can be shifted to displace higher cost generation during peak demand periods. The potential revenue from this arbitrage can offset the cost and losses of storage; the cost of storage may add 25% to the cost of any wind energy stored but it is not envisaged that this would apply to a large proportion of wind energy generated. For example, in the UK, the 2 GW Dinorwig pumped storage plant evens out electrical demand peaks, and allows base-load suppliers to run their plant more efficiently. Although pumped storage power systems are only about 75% efficient, and have high installation costs, their low running costs and ability to reduce the required electrical base-load can save both fuel and total electrical generation costs.[67][68]
While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable.[69] Studies by Graham Sinden (2009) suggest that, in practice, the variations in thousands of wind turbines, spread out over several different sites and wind regimes, are smoothed, rather than intermittent. As the distance between sites increases, the correlation between wind speeds measured at those sites, decreases.[70]
In particular geographic regions, peak wind speeds may not coincide with peak demand for electrical power. In the US states of California and Texas, for example, hot days in summer may have low wind speed and high electrical demand due to the use of air conditioning. Some utilities subsidize the purchase of geothermal heat pumps by their customers, to reduce electricity demand during the summer months by making air conditioning up to 70% more efficient;[71] widespread adoption of this technology would better match electricity demand to wind availability in areas with hot summers and low summer winds. Another option is to interconnect widely dispersed geographic areas with an HVDC "Super grid". In the U.S. it is estimated that to upgrade the transmission system to take in planned or potential renewables would cost at least $60 billion.[72]
Solar power tends to be complementary to wind.[73][74] On daily to weekly timescales, high pressure areas tend to bring clear skies and low surface winds, whereas low pressure areas tend to be windier and cloudier. On seasonal timescales, solar energy typically peaks in summer, whereas in many areas wind energy is lower in summer and higher in winter.[75] Thus the intermittencies of wind and solar power tend to cancel each other somewhat. The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot-tested a combined power plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power around the clock, entirely from renewable sources.[76]
[[PASTING TABLES IS NOT SUPPORTED]] A 2006 International Energy Agency forum presented costs for managing intermittency as a function of wind-energy's share of total capacity for several countries, as shown in the table on the right. Three reports on the wind variability in the UK issued in 2009, generally agree that variability of wind needs to be taken into account, but it does not make the grid unmanageable. The additional costs, which are modest, can be quantified.[77]
A report on Denmark's wind power noted that their wind power network provided less than 1% of average demand on 54 days during the year 2002.[78] Wind power advocates argue that these periods of low wind can be dealt with by simply restarting existing power stations that have been held in readiness, or interlinking with HVDC.[79] Electrical grids with slow-responding thermal power plants and without ties to networks with hydroelectric generation may have to limit the use of wind power.[78]
Conversely, on particularly windy days, even with penetration levels of 16%, wind power generation can surpass all other electricity sources in a country.[80] In Spain, on 8 November 2009 wind power production reached the highest percentage of electricity production till then, with wind farms covering 53% of the total demand.[81][82]
Capacity credit and fuel savings The capacity credit of wind is estimated by determining the capacity of conventional plants displaced by wind power, whilst maintaining the same degree of system security,.[83] However, the precise value is irrelevant since the main value of wind (in the UK, worth 5 times the capacity credit value[84]) is its fuel and CO2 savings.[citation needed] According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology, interconnecting ten or more wind farms can allow an average of 33% of the total energy produced to be used as reliable, baseload electric power, as long as minimum criteria are met for wind speed and turbine height.[85][86]
Economics Cost trends

Landowners in the US typically receive $3,000 to $5,000 per year in rental income from each wind turbine, while farmers continue to grow crops or graze cattle up to the foot of the turbines.[70] Shown: the Brazos Wind Farm in Texas.

Wind power has low ongoing costs, but a moderate capital cost. The estimated average cost per unit incorporates the cost of construction of the turbine and transmission facilities, borrowed funds, return to investors (including cost of risk), estimated annual production, and other components, averaged over the projected useful life of the equipment, which may be in excess of twenty years. Energy cost estimates are highly dependent on these assumptions so published cost figures can differ substantially. A 2011 report from the American Wind Energy Association stated, "Wind's costs have dropped over the past two years, in the range of 5 to 6 cents per kilowatt-hour recently.... about 2 cents cheaper than coal-fired electricity, and more projects were financed through debt arrangements than tax equity structures last year.... winning more mainstream acceptance from Wall Street's banks.... Equipment makers can also deliver products in the same year that they are ordered instead of waiting up to three years as was the case in previous cycles.... 5,600 MW of new installed capacity is under construction in the United States, more than double the number at this point in 2010. Thirty-five percent of all new power generation built in the United States since 2005 has come from wind, more than new gas and coal plants combined, as power providers are increasingly enticed to wind as a convenient hedge against unpredictable commodity price moves."[87]

A turbine blade convoy passing through Edenfield in the U.K. (2008). Even longer two-piece blades are now manufactured, and then assembled on-site to reduce difficulties in transportion.

A British Wind Energy Association report gives an average generation cost of onshore wind power of around 3.2 pence (between US 5 and 6 cents) per kW·h (2005).[88] Cost per unit of energy produced was estimated in 2006 to be comparable to the cost of new generating capacity in the US for coal and natural gas: wind cost was estimated at $55.80 per MW·h, coal at $53.10/MW·h and natural gas at $52.50.[5] Similar comparative results with natural gas were obtained in a governmental study in the UK in 2011.[89] Other sources in various studies have estimated wind to be more expensive than other sources. A 2009 study on wind power in Spain by Gabriel Calzada Alvarez Universidad Rey Juan Carlos concluded that each installed MW of wind power led to the loss of 4.27 jobs, by raising energy costs and driving away electricity-intensive businesses.[90] The U.S. Department of Energy found the study to be seriously flawed, and the conclusion unsupported.[91] The presence of wind energy, even when subsidised, can reduce costs for consumers (€5 billion/yr in Germany) by reducing the marginal price by minimising the use of expensive 'peaker plants'.[92]
The marginal cost of wind energy once a plant is constructed is usually less than 1 cent per kW·h.[93] In 2004, wind energy cost a fifth of what it did in the 1980s, and some expected that downward trend to continue as larger multi-megawatt turbines were mass-produced.[94] As of 2012 capital costs for wind turbines are substantially lower than 2008-2010 but are still above 2002 levels.[95]
Incentives

Some of the more than 6,000 wind turbines in the Altamont Pass Wind Farm, in California, United States. Developed during a period of tax incentives in the 1980s, this wind farm has more turbines than any other in the US.[96]

Wind energy in many jurisdictions receives financial or other support to encourage its development. Wind energy benefits from subsidies in many jurisdictions, either to increase its attractiveness, or to compensate for subsidies received by other forms of production which have significant negative externalities.
In the US, wind power receives a tax credit for each kW·h produced; at 1.9 cents per kW·h in 2006, the credit has a yearly inflationary adjustment. Another tax benefit is accelerated depreciation. Many American states also provide incentives, such as exemption from property tax, mandated purchases, and additional markets for "green credits". Countries such as Canada and Germany also provide incentives for wind turbine construction, such as tax credits or minimum purchase prices for wind generation, with assured grid access (sometimes referred to as feed-in tariffs). These feed-in tariffs are typically set well above average electricity prices. The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 contains extensions of credits for wind, including microturbines.
Secondary market forces also provide incentives for businesses to use wind-generated power, even if there is a premium price for the electricity. For example, socially responsible manufacturers pay utility companies a premium that goes to subsidize and build new wind power infrastructure. Companies use wind-generated power, and in return they can claim that they are undertaking strong "green" efforts. In the US the organization Green-e monitors business compliance with these renewable energy credits.[97]
Environmental effects

Main article: Environmental impact of wind power

Livestock ignore wind turbines,[98] and continue to graze as they did before wind turbines were installed.

Compared to the environmental impact of traditional energy sources, the environmental impact of wind power is relatively minor. Wind power consumes no fuel, and emits no air pollution, unlike fossil fuel power sources. The energy consumed to manufacture and transport the materials used to build a wind power plant is equal to the new energy produced by the plant within a few months. While a wind farm may cover a large area of land, many land uses such as agriculture are compatible, with only small areas such as turbine foundations and infrastructure made unavailable for use.[6]
Wind farms need to be located in windy areas for greater efficiency, which often leads them to be placed on the top of ridges and hills, where they are particularly visible. This leads some to complain that they 'ruin the landscape'.[99] While aesthetic issues are subjective and others find wind farms pleasant and optimistic, or symbols of energy independence and local prosperity,[100] groups of people[101] often organize to attempt to politically block new wind power sites.[99]
There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures. The scale of the ecological impact may[102] or may not[103] be significant, depending on specific circumstances. Environmental assessment of proposed wind farm projects can mitigate or prevent wildlife fatalities and help protect fragile habitats such as peat bogs [104][105]
Politics Central government Fossil fuels are subsidized by many governments, and wind power and other forms of renewable energy are also often subsidized. For example a 2009 study by the Environmental Law Institute[106] assessed the size and structure of U.S. energy subsidies over the 2002–2008 period. The study estimated that subsidies to fossil-fuel based sources amounted to approximately $72 billion over this period and subsidies to renewable fuel sources totaled $29 billion. In the United States, the federal government has paid US$74 billion for energy subsidies to support R&D for nuclear power ($50 billion) and fossil fuels ($24 billion) from 1973 to 2003. During this same timeframe, renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency received a total of US$26 billion. It has been suggested that a subsidy shift would help to level the playing field and support growing energy sectors, namely solar power, wind power, and biofuels.[107] History shows that no energy sector was developed without subsidies.[107]
According to IEA (2011) energy subsidies artificially lower the price of energy paid by consumers, raise the price received by producers or lower the cost of production. "Fossil fuels subsidies costs generally outweigh the benefits. Subsidies to renewables and low-carbon energy technologies can bring long-term economic and environmental benefits".[108] In November 2011, an IEA report entitled Deploying Renewables 2011 said "subsidies in green energy technologies that were not yet competitive are justified in order to give an incentive to investing into technologies with clear environmental and energy security benefits". The IEA's report disagreed with claims that renewable energy technologies are only viable through costly subsidies and not able to produce energy reliably to meet demand.
In the US, the wind power industry has recently increased its lobbying efforts considerably, spending about $5 million in 2009 after years of relative obscurity in Washington.[109] By comparison, the US nuclear industry alone spent over $650 million on its lobbying efforts and campaign contributions during a single ten year period ending in 2008.[110][111][112]
Following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, Germany's federal government is working on a new plan for increasing energy efficiency and renewable energy commercialization, with a particular focus on offshore wind farms. Under the plan large wind turbines will be erected far away from the coastlines, where the wind blows more consistently than it does on land, and where the enormous turbines won't bother the inhabitants. The plan aims to decrease Germany's dependence on energy derived from coal and nuclear power plants.[113]
Commenting on the EU's 2020 renewable energy target, Economist, Professor Dieter Helm, is critical of how the costs of wind power are cited by lobbyists. Helm also says that the problem of intermittent supply will probably lead to another dash-for-gas or dash-for-coal in Europe, possibly with a negative impact on energy security.[114] A House of Lords Select Committee report (2008) on renewable energy in the UK reported a "concern over the prospective role of wind generated and other intermittent sources of electricity in the UK, in the absence of a break-through in electricity storage technology or the integration of the UK grid with that of continental Europe".[115]
Public opinion Surveys of public attitudes across Europe and in many other countries show strong public support for wind power.[8][9][10] About 80 percent of EU citizens support wind power.[11] In Germany, where wind power has gained very high social acceptance, hundreds of thousands of people have invested in citizens' wind farms across the country and thousands of small and medium sized enterprises are running successful businesses in a new sector that in 2008 employed 90,000 people and generated 8 percent of Germany's electricity.[116][117]
In Spain, with some exceptions, there has been little opposition to the installation of inland wind parks. However, the projects to build offshore parks have been more controversial.[118] In particular, the proposal of building the biggest offshore wind power production facility in the world in southwestern Spain in the coast of Cádiz, on the spot of the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar.[119] has been met with strong opposition who fear for tourism and fisheries in the area,[120] and because the area is a war grave.[119]
In a survey conducted by Angus Reid Strategies in October 2007, 89 per cent of respondents said that using renewable energy sources like wind or solar power was positive for Canada, because these sources were better for the environment. Only 4 per cent considered using renewable sources as negative since they can be unreliable and expensive.[121] According to a Saint Consulting survey in April 2007, wind power was the alternative energy source most likely to gain public support for future development in Canada, with only 16% opposed to this type of energy. By contrast, 3 out of 4 Canadians opposed nuclear power developments.[122]
A 2003 survey of residents living around Scotland's 10 existing wind farms found high levels of community acceptance and strong support for wind power, with much support from those who lived closest to the wind farms. The results of this survey support those of an earlier Scottish Executive survey 'Public attitudes to the Environment in Scotland 2002', which found that the Scottish public would prefer the majority of their electricity to come from renewables, and which rated wind power as the cleanest source of renewable energy.[123] A survey conducted in 2005 showed that 74% of people in Scotland agree that wind farms are necessary to meet current and future energy needs. When people were asked the same question in a Scottish Renewables study conducted in 2010, 78% agreed. The increase is significant as there were twice as many wind farms in 2010 as there were in 2005. The 2010 survey also showed that 52% disagreed with the statement that wind farms are "ugly and a blot on the landscape". 59% agreed that wind farms were necessary and that how they looked was unimportant.[124][125]
Despite this general support for the concept of wind power in the public at large, local opposition often exists and has delayed or aborted a number of projects. This type of opposition is often described as NIMBYism,[126] but research carried out in 2009 found that there is little evidence to support the belief that residents only object to renewable power facilities such as wind turbines as a result of a "Not In My Back Yard" attitude.[127]
Community See also Renewable energy debate –Community debate about wind farms

Wind turbines such as these, in Cumbria, England, have been opposed for a number of reasons, including aesthetics, by some sectors of the population.[128][129]

Many wind power companies work with local communities to reduce environmental and other concerns associated with particular wind farms.[130][131][132][133] In other cases there is direct community ownership of wind farm projects. Appropriate government consultation, planning and approval procedures also help to minimize environmental risks.[8][134][135] Some may still object to wind farms[101] but, according to The Australia Institute, their concerns should be weighed against the need to address the threats posed by climate change and the opinions of the broader community.[136]
In America, wind projects are reported to boost local tax bases, helping to pay for schools, roads and hospitals. Wind projects also revitalize the economy of rural communities by providing steady income to farmers and other landowners.[70]
In the UK, both the National Trust and the Campaign to Protect Rural England have expressed concerns about the effects on the rural landscape caused by inappropriately sited wind turbines and wind farms.[137][138]
Some wind farms have become tourist attractions. The Whitelee Wind Farm Visitor Centre has an exhibition room, a learning hub, a café with a viewing deck and also a shop. It is run by the Glasgow Science Centre.[139]
In Denmark, a loss-of-value scheme gives people the right to claim compensation for loss of value of their property if it is caused by proximity to a wind turbine. The loss must be at least 1% of the property’s value.[140]
There have been numerous reports of those living close to wind turbines suffering adverse health effects from noise, vibration and shadow flicker, and in 2009 New York Paediatrician, Dr. Nina Pierpont, claimed to have identified an effect for which she coined the term "Wind Turbine Sydrome".[141] An industry commissioned review of the current research on the possible health effects of wind turbine noise and vibration reported in 2010 that, "the sound (including subaudible sound) is not unique, and does not pose a risk to human health. Although the sound may cause ‘annoyance’ for some people, this in itself is not an adverse health effect." The findings of the report have, however, been questioned on a number of grounds including; that the reviewing group did not include an epidemiologist, usually a given for assessing potential environmental health hazards, and that there was no clear description of the methods the researchers used to search for available research, nor how they rated the quality of the research.[142] In October 2010 The Society for Wind Vigilance held an international symposium concerning the subject. [143] A study on wind farm noise published in 2012 by The US state of Massachusetts reported that people are annoyed by sound from wind turbines at far lower sound levels than they are by noises from railroads, aircraft, or road traffic. The study found the percentage of respondents who found noise levels highly annoying rose quickly as sound levels increased above about 37dbA (about the level of a conversation).[144]
Small-scale wind power

Further information: Microgeneration

A 5 kilowatt vertical axis wind turbine

Small-scale wind power is the name given to wind generation systems with the capacity to produce up to 50 kW of electrical power.[145] Isolated communities, that may otherwise rely on diesel generators, may use wind turbines as an alternative. Individuals may purchase these systems to reduce or eliminate their dependence on grid electricity for economic reasons, or to reduce their carbon footprint. Wind turbines have been used for household electricity generation in conjunction with battery storage over many decades in remote areas.[21]
Grid-connected domestic wind turbines may use grid energy storage, thus replacing purchased electricty with locally produced power when available. The surplus power produced by domestic microgenerators can, in some jurisdictions, be fed into the network and sold to the utility company, producing a retail credit for the microgenerators' owners to offset their energy costs.[146][147]
Off-grid system users can either adapt to intermittent power or use batteries, photovoltaic or diesel systems to supplement the wind turbine. Equipment such as parking meters, traffic warning signs, street lighting, or wireless Internet gateways may be powered by a small wind turbine, possibly combined with a photovoltaic system, that charges a small battery replacing the need for a connection to the power grid.[148]
In locations near or around a group of high-rise buildings, wind shear generates areas of intense turbulence, especially at street-level.[149] The risks associated with mechanical or catastrophic failure have thus plagued urban wind development in densely populated areas, rendering the costs of insuring urban wind systems prohibitive.[150] Moreover, quantifying the amount of wind in urban areas has been difficult, as little is known about the actual wind resources of towns and cities.[151]
A Carbon Trust study into the potential of small-scale wind energy in the UK, published in 2010, found that small wind turbines could provide up to 1.5 terawatt hours (TW·h) per year of electricity (0.4% of total UK electricity consumption), saving 0.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (Mt CO2) emission savings. This is based on the assumption that 10% of households would install turbines at costs competitive with grid electricity, around 12 pence (US 19 cents) a kW·h.[152] A report prepared for the UK's government-sponsored Energy Saving Trust in 2006, found that home power generators of various kinds could provide 30 to 40 per cent of the country's electricity needs by 2050.[153]
Distributed generation from renewable resources is increasing as a consequence of the increased awareness of climate change. The electronic interfaces required to connect renewable generation units with the utility system can include additional functions, such as the active filtering to enhance the power quality.[154]

See also

Notes

^ For example, a 1 MW turbine with a capacity factor of 35% will not produce 8,760 MW·h in a year (1 × 24 × 365), but only 1 × 0.35 × 24 × 365 = 3,066 MW·h, averaging to 0.35 MW.

References

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^ a b Hannele Holttinen, et al. (September 2006). ""Design and Operation of Power Systems with Large Amounts of Wind Power", IEA Wind Summary Paper" (PDF). Global Wind Power Conference 18–21 September 2006, Adelaide, Australia.
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^ a b "The Social Acceptance of Wind Energy". European Commission.
^ http://www.pollingreport.com/energy.htm
^ Ahmad Y Hassan, Donald Routledge Hill (1986). Islamic Technology: An illustrated history, p. 54. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.
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^ Mark Kurlansky, Salt: a world history,Penguin Books, London 2002 isbN 0-14-200161-9, pg. 419
^ a b "Brief History of Windmills in the New World"
^ "Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas". Mysanantonio.com. 23 September 2007. Retrieved 29 August 2010.[dead link]
^ Hardy, Chris (6 July 2010). "Renewable energy and role of Marykirk's James Blyth". The Courier. D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd.. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
^ a b Price, Trevor J (3 May 2005). "James Blyth – Britain's first modern wind power engineer". Wind Engineering 29 (3): 191–200. doi:10.1260/030952405774354921.[dead link]
^ a b c NIxon, Niki (17 October 2008). "Timeline: The history of wind power". The Guardian. Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
^ a b Dodge, Darrell M.. "Part 2 - 20th Century Developments". Illustrated history of wind power development. TelosNet Web Development. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
^ "The Quest: Energy, Security, and the Remaking of the Modern World". us.Penguingroup.com. 20 September 2011. Retrieved 1 November 2011.
^ a b Anon (2010). "What is wind?". Renewable UK: Education and careers. Renewable UK. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
^ Hurley, Brian. "How Much Wind Energy is there? – Brian Hurley – Wind Site Evaluation Ltd.". Claverton Group. Retrieved 8 April 2012.
^ a b Anil Ananthaswamy and Michael Le Page (30 January 2012). "Power paradox: Clean might not be green forever". New Scientist.
^ Demeo, E.A.; Grant, W.; Milligan, M.R.; Schuerger, M.J. (2005). "Wind plant integration". Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE 3 (6): 38–46. doi:10.1109/MPAE.2005.1524619
^ Zavadil, R.; Miller, N.; Ellis, A.; Muljadi, E. (2005). "Making connections". Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE 3 (6): 26–37. doi:10.1109/MPAE.2005.1524618
^ Hulazan, Ned (16 February 2011). "Offshore wind power – Advantages and disadvantages". Renewable Energy Articles. Retrieved 9 April 2012.
^ Millborrow, David (6 August 2010). "Cutting the cost of offshore wind energy". Wind Power Monthly. Haymarket. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
^ "Innovation in Wind Turbine Design" (2011), Peter Jamieson, p. 131
^ Morales, Alex; Bakewell, Sally (10 April 2012). [Millborrow "Wind Power Seen Surging as Custom Barges Cut Set-up Costs"]. Blloomberg News. Bloomberg L.P.. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
^ a b Madsen & Krogsgaard. Offshore Wind Power 2010 BTM Consult, 22 November 2010. Retrieved: 22 November 2010.
^ a b "GWEC, Global Wind Report Annual Market Update". Gwec.net. Retrieved 14 May 2011.
^ Global wind energy council
^ http://www.gwec.net/index.php?id=30&no_cache=1&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=340&tx_ttnews[backPid]=4&cHash=f4d1217bad
^ "World Wind Energy Report 2010" (PDF). Report. World Wind Energy Association. February 2011. Retrieved 8-August-2011.
^ "Wind Power Increase in 2008 Exceeds 10-year Average Growth Rate". Worldwatch.org. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ a b c d "BTM Forecasts 340-GW of Wind Energy by 2013". Renewableenergyworld.com. 27 March 2009. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ a b c BTM Consult (2009). International Wind Energy Development World Market Update 2009
^ Månedlig elforsyningsstatistik, HTML-spreadsheet summary tab B58-B72 Danish Energy Agency 18 January 2012. Accessed: 11 March 2012.
^ "Monthly Statistics - SEN". Feb 2012.
^ "the Spanish electricity system: preliminary report 2011". Jan 2012. p. 13.
^ "Renewables". eirgrid.com. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
^ Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie (Feb 2012). "Die Energiewende in Deutschland". Berlin. p. 4.
^ REN21 (2011). "Renewables 2011: Global Status Report". p. 11.
^ "Spain becomes the first European wind energy producer after overcoming Germany for the first time". Eolic Energy News. 31 December 2010. Retrieved 14 May 2011.
^ "GWEC Global Wind Statistics 2011" (pdf). Global Wind Energy Commission. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
^ Observ'ER. 2.2 Electricity Production From Wind Sources: Main Wind Power Producing Countries – 2010 (text & table), Worldwide Electricity Production From Renewable Energy Sources: Stats and Figures Series: Thirteenth Inventory - Edition 2011, Paris: Observ'ER (L’Observatoire des énergies renouvelables). Retrieved from energies-renouvelables.org 29 March 2012.
^ World Wind Energy Association
^ "GWEC, Global Wind Energy Outlook". Gwec.net. Retrieved 14 May 2011.
^ "Global wind capacity increases by 22% in 2010 – Asia leads growth". Global Wind Energy Council. 2 February 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2011.
^ "Continuing boom in wind energy – 20 GW of new capacity in 2007". Gwec.net. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ Wind Power: Capacity Factor, Intermittency, and what happens when the wind doesn’t blow?. Retrieved 24 January 2008.
^ Massachusetts Maritime Academy — Bourne, Mass This 660 kW wind turbine has a capacity factor of about 19%.
^ Wind Power in Ontario These wind farms have capacity factors of about 28–35%.
^ "RenewableUK – BWEA Briefing on UK Wind Capacity Factors". Bwea.com. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
^ WindpoweringAmerica.gov, 46. U.S. Department of Energy; Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy "20% Wind Energy by 2030"
^ "Tackling Climate Change in the U.S." (PDF). American Solar Energy Society. January 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2007.
^ The UK System Operator, National Grid (UK) have quoted estimates of balancing costs for 40% wind and these lie in the range £500-1000M per annum. "These balancing costs represent an additional £6 to £12 per annum on average consumer electricity bill of around £390." "National Grid's response to the House of Lords Economic Affairs Select Committee investigating the economics of renewable energy". National Grid. 2008.[dead link]
^ A study commissioned by the state of Minnesota considered penetration of up to 25%, and concluded that integration issues would be manageable and have incremental costs of less than one-half cent ($0.0045) per kW·h. "Final Report – 2006 Minnesota Wind Integration Study" (PDF). The Minnesota Public Utilities Commission. 30 November 2006. Retrieved 15 January 2008.
^ ESB National Grid, Ireland's electric utility, in a 2004 study that, concluded that to meet the renewable energy targets set by the EU in 2001 would "increase electricity generation costs by a modest 15%" "Impact of Wind Power Generation In Ireland on the Operation of Conventional Plant and the Economic Implications" (PDF). ESB National Grid. February, 2004. p. 36. Archived from the original on 25 June 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2008.
^ Sinclair Merz Growth Scenarios for UK Renewables Generation and Implications for Future Developments and Operation of Electricity Networks BERR Publication URN 08/1021 June 2008
^ a b 2010 Wind Technologies Market Report, EERE, U.S. Department of Energy, page 7
^ "Claverton-Energy.com". Claverton-Energy.com. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ "Claverton-Eneergy.com". Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ Mitchell 2006.
^ l First Hydro, Dinorwig[dead link]
^ The Future of Electrical Energy Storage: The economics and potential of new technologies 2/1/2009 ID RET2107622
^ "Variability of Wind Power and other Renewables: Management Options and Strategies" (PDF). IEA. 2005. Retrieved 2008-10-15.
^ a b c American Wind Energy Association (2009). Annual Wind Industry Report, Year Ending 2008[dead link] pp. 9–10.
^ "Geothermal Heat Pumps". Capital Electric Cooperative. Retrieved 5 October 2008.
^ Wind Energy Bumps Into Power Grid’s Limits Published: 26 August 2008
^ Wind + sun join forces at Washington power plant. Retrieved 31 January 2008.
^ "Small Wind Systems". Seco.cpa.state.tx.us. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ "Lake Erie Wind Resource Report, Cleveland Water Crib Monitoring Site, Two-Year Report Executive Summary" (PDF). Green Energy Ohio. 10 January 2008. Retrieved 27 November 2008. This study measured up to four times as much average wind power during winter as in summer for the test site.
^ "The Combined Power Plant: the first stage in providing 100% power from renewable energy". SolarServer. January 2008. Retrieved 10 October 2008.
^ Jo Abbess (28 August 2009). "Wind Energy Variability and Intermittency in the UK". Claverton-energy.com. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ a b "Why wind power works for Denmark" (PDF). Civil Engineering. May 2005. Retrieved 15 January 2008.
^ Realisable Scenarios for a Future Electricity Supply based 100% on Renewable Energies Gregor Czisch, University of Kassel, Germany and Gregor Giebel, Risø National Laboratory, Technical University of Denmark
^ "Récord de energía eólica por el vendaval". Lavanguardia.es. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
^ International Energy Agency (2009). IEA Wind Energy: Annual Report 2008 p. 235.
^ < La energía eólica supera por primera vez la mitad de la producción eléctrica [1]>
^ Anon. "Capacity Credit of Wind Power: Capacity credit is the measure for firm wind power". Wind Energy the Facts. EWEA. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
^ Dr Graham Sinden, Oxford Environmental Change Institute: The implications of the Em’s 20/20/20 directive on renewable electricity generation requirements in the UK, and the potential role of offshore wind power in this context. (Graham Sinden has published a number of papers looking at the effects of integrating variable/intermittent generation into the generation mix) [dead link]
^ "The power of multiples: Connecting wind farms can make a more reliable and cheaper power source". 21 November 2007.
^ Archer, C. L.; Jacobson, M. Z. (2007). "Supplying Baseload Power and Reducing Transmission Requirements by Interconnecting Wind Farms". Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology (American Meteorological Society) 46 (11): 1701–1717. Bibcode 2007JApMC..46.1701A. doi:10.1175/2007JAMC1538.1
^ Salerno, E., AWEA Director of Industry and Data Analysis, as quoted in Shahan, Z. (2011) Cost of Wind Power – Kicks Coal’s Butt, Better than Natural Gas (& Could Power Your EV for $0.70/gallon)" CleanTechnica.com
^ BWEA report on onshore wind costs (PDF).
^ [2] Costs of low-carbon generation technologies May 2011 Committee on Climate Change
^ "Study of the effects on employment of public aid to renewable energy sources". juandemariana.org. March 2009. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
^ "NREL Response to the Report Study of the Effects on Employment of Public Aid to Renewable Energy Sources from King Juan Carlos University (Spain)". nrel.gov. August 2009.
^ "The Merit-Order Effect: A Detailed Analyis of the Price Effect of Renewable Electricity Generation on Spot Market Prices in Germany" (PDF). Archived from the original on 29 August 2010. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ "Wind and Solar Power Systems — Design, analysis and Operation" (2nd ed., 2006), Mukund R. Patel, p. 303
^ Helming, Troy (2004) "Uncle Sam's New Year's Resolution" ArizonaEnergy.org
^ "LBNL/NREL Analysis Predicts Record Low LCOE for Wind Energy in 2012-2013". US Department of Energy Wind Program Newsletter. Retrieved 2012-03-10.
^ Wind Plants of California's Altamont Pass[dead link]
^ Green-e.org Retrieved on 20 May 2009
^ Buller, Erin (11 July 2008). "Capturing the wind". Uinta County Herald. Retrieved 4 December 2008."The animals don’t care at all. We find cows and antelope napping in the shade of the turbines." – Mike Cadieux, site manager, Wyoming Wind Farm
^ a b Aldred, Jessica. Q&A: Wind Power, The Guardian, 10 December 2007.
^ Gourlay, Simon. Wind Farms Are Not Only Beautiful, They're Absolutely Necessary, The Guardian, 12 August 2008.
^ a b Wind Energy Opposition and Action Groups
^ Eilperin, Juliet; Steven Mufson (16 April 2009). "Renewable Energy's Environmental Paradox". The Washington Post. Retrieved 17 April 2009.
^ "Wind farms". Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. 14 September 2005. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
^ Lindsay, Richard (October 2004). WIND FARMS AND BLANKET PEAT The Bog Slide of 16 October 2003 at Derrybrien, Co. Galway, Ireland. The Derrybrien Development Cooperatve Ltd. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
^ Anon. "Wind farms". rspb.org. The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds. Retrieved 18 April 2012.
^ http://www.elistore.org/Data/products/d19_07.pdf
^ a b Pernick, Ron and Wilder, Clint (2007). The Clean Tech Revolution: The Next Big Growth and Investment Opportunity, p. 280.
^ World Energy Outlook 2011 Factsheet How will global energy markets evolve to 2035? IEA November 2011 6 pages
^ Cassandra LaRussa (30 March 2010). "Solar, Wind Power Groups Becoming Prominent Washington Lobbying Forces After Years of Relative Obscurity". OpenSecrets.org.
^ Nuclear Industry Spent Hundreds of Millions of Dollars Over the Last Decade to Sell Public, Congress on New Reactors, New Investigation Finds, Union of Concerned Scientists, 1 February 2010. In turn, citing:
- Pasternak, Judy. Nuclear Energy Lobby Working Hard To Win Support, American University School of Communication, Investigative Journalism Workshop, with McClatchy Newspapers, 24 January 2010. Retrieved 3 July 2010.
^ Ward, Chip. Nuclear Power – Not A Green Option, Los Angeles Times, 5 March 2010.
^ Pasternak, Judy. Nuclear Energy Lobby Working Hard To Win Support, McClatchy Newspapers co-published with the American University School of Communication, 24 January 2010.
^ Stefan Schultz (March 23, 2011). "Will Nuke Phase-Out Make Offshore Farms Attractive?". Spiegel Online.
^ Helm, Dieter (October 2009). "EU climate-change policy—a critique". The Economics and Politics of Climate Change (OUP).
^ House of Lords Economic Affairs Select Committee (12 November 2008). "Chapter 7: Recommendations and Conclusions. In: Economic Affairs – Fourth Report, Session 2007–2008. The Economics of Renewable Energy". UK Parliament website. Retrieved 6 September 2009.
^ "Community Power Empowers". Dsc.discovery.com. 26 May 2009. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
^ Community Wind Farms[dead link]
^ Cohn, Laura; Vitzhum, Carlta; Ewing, Jack (2005-07-11). "Wind power has a head of steam.". European Business..
^ a b "Grave developments for battle site.". The Engineer.: 6. 2003-06-13.
^ [3]>
^ Canadians favour energy sources that are better for the environment
^ Wind power developments are least likely to be opposed by Canadians – Nuclear power opposed by most
^ Wind farms make good neighbours
^ "'Rise in Scots wind farm support'". 19 October 2010.
^ "Scots support wind farms". Sustainable Scotland. 22 October 2010.
^ "Windmills vs. NIMBYism". The Star (Toronto). 2008-10-20.
^ Donoghue, Andrew (30 Jul 2009). "Wind industry should avoid branding opponents "Nimbys"". Business Green. Business Green. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
^ "Wind Farms in Cumbria". Retrieved 3 October 2008.
^ James Arnold (20 September 2004). "Wind Turbulence over turbines in Cumbria". BBC News. Retrieved 3 October 2008.
^ "Group Dedicates Opening of 200 MW Big Horn Wind Farm: Farm incorporates conservation efforts that protect wildlife habitat". Renewableenergyaccess.com. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
^ Jeanette Fisher. "Wind Power: MidAmerican's Intrepid Wind Farm". Environmentpsychology.com. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
^ "Stakeholder Engagement". Agl.com.au. 19 March 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
^ Community Relations[dead link]
^ "National Code for Wind Farms". Environment.gov.au. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
^ "New standard and big investment for wind energy". Publish.csiro.au. 17 December 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
^ The Australia Institute (2006). Wind Farms The facts and the fallacies Discussion Paper Number 91, October, ISSN 1322-5421, p. 28.
^ "Wind farm to be built near a Northamptonshire heritage site", BBC News, 14 March 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
^ Hill, Chris (30 April 2012). "CPRE calls for action over ‘proliferation’ of wind turbines". EDP 24. Archant community Media Ltd. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
^ "Whitelee Windfarm". Scottish Power Renewables.
^ Wind Turbines in Denmark (section 6.8, page 22) - Danish Energy Agency
^ Pagano, Margareta (02 August 2009). "Are wind farms a health risk? US scientist identifies 'wind turbine syndrome'". The Independent (independent.co.uk). Retrieved 30 April 2012.
^ Bazian (28 January 2010). "Health News". NHS choices. NHS. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
^ "FIRST INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM THE GLOBAL WIND INDUSTRY AND ADVERSE HEALTH EFFECTS: Loss of Social Justice?". windvigilance.com. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
^ Pederson, Eja (December 2004). Perception and annoyance due to wind turbine noise—a dose–response relationship. Acoustic Society of America.
^ "Small-scale wind energy". Carbontrust.co.uk. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ "Sell electricity back to the utility company" Retrieved on 7 November 2008
^ The Times 22 June 2008 "Home-made energy to prop up grid" Retrieved on 7 November 2008
^ Kart, Jeff (13 May 2009). "Wind, Solar-Powered Street Lights Only Need a Charge Once Every Four Days". Clean Technica. Clean Technica. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
^ "Urban Wind Definition at". Answers.com. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ Olson, William (15 February 2010). "An Urban Experiment in Renewable Energy". Retrieved 8 March 2010.
^ "Windy Cities? New research into the urban wind resource". Carbontrust.co.uk. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
^ "Smale scale wind energy". Carbontrust.co.uk. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
^ Hamer, Mick (21 January 2006). "The rooftop power revolution". New Scientist (Reed Business Information Ltd.) (2535). Retrieved 11 April 2012.
^ "Active filtering and load balancing with small wind energy systems". Ieeexplore.ieee.org. Retrieved 29 August 2010.

External links [[PASTING TABLES IS NOT SUPPORTED]]

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Renewable energy by country

Links The following are BWEA recommended links to other wind organisations, publications and related sites. These should help you find out more about the world of wind energy. Click here for information about our links policy.
[[PASTING TABLES IS NOT SUPPORTED]] Wind Energy Associations American Wind Energy Association - www.awea.org
Australian Wind Energy Association - www.auswea.com.au
Austrian Wind Energy Association - www.igwindkraft.at
Bundesverband Windenergie (Germany) - www.wind-energie.de
Canadian Wind Energy Association - www.canwea.ca
Danmarks Vindmølleforening - www.dkvind.dk
FFA (Sweden) - www.ffa.se
Finnish Wind Power Association - www.tuulivoimayhdistys.fi/
Hellenic Wind Energy Association - http://www.eletaen.gr/index_en.htm
Indian Wind Energy Association (InWEA) - www.inwea.org
Irish Wind Energy Association - www.iwea.com
Meitheal na Gaoithe - The Irish Wind Farmers Co-operative Society - www.mnag.ie
ISES-Italia - www.isesitalia.it
APER - Italian Association of Renewable Energy Producers - www.aper.it
ANEV - Italian Wind Energy Association - www.anev.org
Latin American Wind Energy Association - www.lawea.org
Latin American Energy Organization - www.olade.org.ec
Mongolian Wind Energy Association - windpowermon@gmail.com
Netherlands Wind Energy Association - www.nwea.nl
Norwegian Wind Energy Association - http://www.norwea.no
SAVE - Slovak Association for Wind Energy - www.save.szm.sk
South African Wind Energy Association - www.icon.co.za/~sawea Spanish WEA - Asociación Empresarial Eólica www.aeeolica.org
Spanish Wind Energy Association (Asociación Empresarial Eólica)www.aeeolica.org
New Zealand Wind Energy Association - www.windenergy.org.nz
'Vetroenergoprom' Energy-Production Association (Ukraine) - energy@winden.donetsk.ua
Vis Venti - Polish Wind Energy Association - www.visventi.org.pl/
Association of Electricity Producers - www.aepuk.com
Energy Networks Association - www.energynetworks.org
The British Hydropower Association - www.british-hydro.org
Scottish Renewables Forum - SRF - www.scottishrenewables.org.uk
Environmental Organisations Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth are very active in their support of renewable energy, organising campaigns and providing information on the relevant issues.
Government Departments Department of Trade and Industry BWEA works closely with the DTI in relation to international trade and renewable energy. The DTI also publish information on energy statistics, such as 'Energy Trends' and the 'Digest of UK Energy Statistics', collating energy production, consumption and prices in the UK.
Department of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs DEFRA is responsible for the UK Climate Change Programme which adresses global warming and establishes regimes for meeting targets on greenhouse gas emissions and Kyoto, such as the Climate Change Levy. Also looks at issues such as energy efficiency, sustainable development and is beind the 'Are you doing your bit?' campaign, the main message of which is that when it comes to the environment, even the smallest individual action really does make a difference - and can benefit you too!
Office of the Deputy Prime Minister The ODPM has responsibility for National Renewable Energy planning policy and relate regional issues.
Magazines and Information Services

Wind Directions is the magazine of the European Wind Energy Association, published six times a year, giving current developments and news on the wind energy industry in Europe.
Windpower Monthly publishes news and critical analyses of key issues about wind power and its markets. Includes The Windicator, the renowned page of market indicators, giving a country by country breakdown of installed capacity.
New Review is the Quarterly Newsletter for the UK New and Renewable Energy Industry, principally covering: wind, solar, biomass and hydro energy developments. Produced by ETSU on behalf of the DTI.
WindStats Newsletter is a quarterly international wind energy publication with news, reviews, wind turbine production and operating data from over 12,000 wind turbines, plus much more.
Renewable Energy World accentuates the achievements and potential of all forms of renewable energy sources and the technologies being developed to harness them. In this on-line version there are full text selected articles, abstracts, back issue information, and links to all of the other renewable energy information sources at James & James including its international database of renewable energy suppliers and services.
Renew On-Line is an edited, text only, version of parts of the News sections of RENEW, the journal of NATTA, the independent national UK Network for Alternative Technology and Technology Assessment. Members include the Energy and Environment Research Unit (EERU) and the Open University.
CADDET provides international information on renewable energy on full-scale commercial projects which are operating in the member countries, currently Australia, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Japan, The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States and the European Commission (DGXVII - Energy). The CADDET programme covers the full range of renewable energy technologies.
EuroREX (European Renewable Energy Exchange) is an on-line commercial information service and newsletter created by a network of energy experts from 30 European countries. Its aim is to provide up-to-date information on renewables directly from professionals working in the field. European Renewable Energy exchange
Solstice is the Internet information service of the Renewable Energy Policy Project and the Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology (REPP-CREST). Sustainable energy and development information as well as renewable energy, energy efficiency and sustainable living
World-wide Information System for Renewable Energy (WIRE).
Wind Engineering. A bi-monthly journal which publishes technical papers on all aspects of wind energy systems.

Places to Visit The Centre for Alternative Technology in Wales is an educational charity striving to achieve the best cooperation between the natural, technological and human worlds. CAT tests, lives with and displays strategies and tools for doing this. CAT has it's own wind turbine as part of their work for a sustainable future.
The EcoTech Centre at Swaffham in Norfolk is an educational charity which aims to stimulate and inform people about the need for sustainable development. The Centre grounds include organic gardens, a biomass power station and one of the largest wind turbines in the world.
The Earth Centre at Doncaster encompasses a range of environmental exhibitions and activities. Tel 01709 512000 for further information.
The Gaia Energy Centre in Cornwall is a centre for the promotion of, and education about, renewable and sustainable energy and energy conservation.
Many wind farms have visitor centres or opportunities to see the turbines at closer range. Specific details can be found in our map of wind farms of the UK.
Educational Resources Yahoo! Science - Renewable Energy
The Franklin Institue On-Line What do your students already know about wind? That's a tough question. Each one brings an entirely different history to your classroom. Has anyone seen a hurricane? Have your students even had the chance to fly a kite? In order to establish some sort of commonality, begin your exploration of wind by using some of the following resources.

Understanding Global Issues, published by European Schoolbooks Publishing Ltd, The Runnings, Cheltenham, Glos. GL51 9PQ, issue 94/9: Renewable Energy, Wind and Water Power. £2.50. This is an excellent presentation of many aspects of the subject, with a world map. Useful for teachers.
The Open University Distance Learning, T521 Renewable Energy Resource Pack for Tertiary Education, includes video, slides, disks, leaflets, articles, papers exercises, and many other features. Contact: Learning Materials Sales Office, The Open University, PO Box 188, Milton Keynes, MK7 6DH, Tel 01908 653376 Fax: 01908 654320. Useful for teachers.
Scientific and Research Institutions Offshore Engineering and Naval Architecture Research Group at Cranfield University
Institute for Wind Energy at Delft University of Technology in The Netherlands.
National Wind Technology Center at The National Renewable Energy Laboratory. The U.S. Department of Energy's premier laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research, development and deployment.
Risoe National Laboratory Wind Energy and Atmospheric Physics department.The research of the department aims develop new opportunities for industry and society in the exploitation of wind power and to map and alleviate atmospheric aspects of environmental problems in collaboration with the National Environmental Research Institute.
The Netherlands Energy Research Foundation ECN is the leading institute for energy research in the Netherlands. Research is carried out under contract from the government and from national and foreign organisations and industries. ECN's activities are concentrated in six priority areas: solar energy, wind energy, biomass, clean fossil, energy efficiency, and policy studies.
Wind Energy Technology at Sandia National Laboratories. Applied research in aerodynamics, structural dynamics, fatigue, materials, manufacturing, controls, and systems integration to understand unsolved technology problems and to provide better design tools. New efforts investigate how rare atmospheric events can impact wind turbine long-term structural integrity and how advanced data handling techniques can be successfully applied to the difficult field environment of operating wind turbines.
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) - science and technology solutions for the global energy industry.
Organisations & Information in Other Countries

Wind Energy on the International Energy Agency (IEA)
United States Department of Energy
US DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Network - Wind Energy
California Energy Commission wind energy pages
German Wind Energy Institute provides information about Germany's export and service possibilities as well as German wind wnergy statistics.
Wind Service Holland. National and regional indexes of the monthly wind resource and statistics on energy-production from 18 MW of cooperatively owned wind turbines, plus other facts and news from Holland.
Wind Turbines in Australia
Overview of Worldwide Wind Generation by Paul Gipe

Links policy If you would like us to consider linking to your site, email us with details of your site.
Please note that we do not normally link to non-member commercial organisations.
If you wish to link to BWEA, please use this mini-logo button.
Always link to http://www.bwea.com

On this page you will find links to wind energy associations around the world and other interesting wind energy related websites.
Continental and large national associations
National associations
Wind Energy related websites

Affordable Wind Turbines

http://www.affordablewindturbines.org/

Affordable Wind Turbines

www.affordablewindturbines.org

Company Name Affordable Wind Turbines

Phone number 361-444-3711
529 Clifford St.
City,State, 78404 Corpus Christi Texas
E-mail address affordablewindturbines@gmail.com

Jump to: Small Wind Systems | Transmission | Wind Storage | Cash Crop | Renewable Portfolio Standard | Connecting to the Grid | Net Metering
Texas Renewable Energy Incentives
Energy Policy Act of 2005 Tax Credits
Several articles on the Energy Policy Act of 2005 Tax Credits.
Organizations
Online Resources
Small Wind Systems
Software
Organizations
Renewable Energy Vendors & Services
SECO does not link directly to vendors, but you can visit the Texas Renewable Energy Industry Association web site and select the Search Our Members tab. There you can search by the type of renewable energy that interests you. You can also find vendor contact information on the Texas Solar Energy Society web site and select the Find Vendors link for their database of vendors who provide products or services related to renewable energy. Of course, when talking with a vendor, always be sure to ask for references.
DOE Wind and Hydropower Technologies Program
The U. S. Department of Energy (DOE) Wind Energy Program works with industry to keep U. S. wind energy technology competitive in global markets. The program includes a comprehensive wind energy research program, wind turbine research and development, and support for utilities, industry, and international wind energy projects.
Wind Powering America
A DOE site with state wind maps, small wind consumer's guides, wind workshops, news articles, press releases, and fact sheets.
American Wind Energy Association (AWEA)
A national trade association that represents wind power plant developers, wind turbine manufacturers, utilities, consultants, insurers, financiers, researchers, and others involved in the wind industry. This site includes wind information and resources, energy policies and studies, workshops and events, news, publications and a members' directory. AWEA provides information specific to buying and installing a wind turbine in Texas.
The Wind Coalition
The Wind Coalition is a non-profit association formed to encourage the development of the vast wind energy resources of the south central United States.
West Texas Wind Energy Consortium
The consortium's purpose is to increase area economic development, education and job training.
AAS Degree for Wind Energy in Texas
Texas State Technical College (TSTC) West Texas Sweetwater campus has added to its curriculum a Wind Energy and Turbine Technology two year degree program developed by TSTC faculty in collaboration with program advisory group members of the wind industry, including Florida Power and Light (FPL), General Electric, and Texas Tech University. See this PFL Energy article.
Texas General Land Office (GLO): Sustainable Energy
The GLO identifies state lands that have potential for wind power development, calling attention to particularly suitable uplands tracts as well as examining future offshore potential. Wind power data is being collected and analyzed, under a grant from the State Energy Conservation Office (SECO), from several upland and offshore sites as part of the effort to further wind development and research in Texas.
Mapping and Monitoring Texas Wind Power
Through a grant from the State Energy Conservation Office (SECO), the Texas General Land Office has developed a network of several towers in a variety of locations on state lands around the state.
Lower Colorado River Authority: A Leader in Texas Wind Power
LCRA has supported the development of wind power from its beginning in Texas.
West Texas A & M Alternative Energy Institute
AEI is involved in research, development and design of renewable energy systems, classes, seminars, workshops, training programs, publications, and information dissemination. AEI offers two introductory courses, one for wind energy and one for solar energy.
Sandia National Laboratories Wind Energy Technology
A DOE laboratory that performs applied wind energy research.
National Wind Technology Center (NWTC)
NWTC works with the U.S. wind industry to improve wind turbine technology. The NWTC is the nation's only full-service wind turbine testing center and is operated by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), DOE's lead laboratory in wind technology research and development.
Windtricity
A City Public Service (San Antonio) web site. Windtricity is a voluntary renewable energy option for CPS customers to purchase electricity generated by wind-powered turbines in West Texas.
Wind Energy Portal
DOE's Office of Scientific and Technical Information web site provides a Subject Portal for Wind Energy. This subject-specific web sites provides full-text DOE scientific and technical reports, links to journal literature, and other information sources pertaining to Wind Energy.
Windustry
Windustry is a non-profit organization working to create an understanding of wind energy opportunities for rural economic benefit by providing technical support and creating tools for analysis.
National Wind Coordinating Collaborative
A consensus-based collaborative comprised of representatives from the utility, wind industry, environmental, consumer, regulatory, power marketer, agricultural, tribal, economic development, and state and federal government sectors interested in encouraging the prudent acceleration of wind power deployment in the United States. The site includes program announcements, meetings and events, publications, wind energy resources and information on RFPs and RFQ's.
Utility Wind Integration Group
Established in 1989 to provide a forum for the critical analysis of wind technology for utility applications and to serve as a source of credible information on the status of wind technology and deployment. The group's mission is to accelerate the appropriate integration of wind power for utility applications through the coordinated efforts and actions of its members, in collaboration with DOE and utility research organizations.
Global Wind Energy Council
GWEC's mission is to ensure that wind power establishes itself as one of the world's leading energy sources, providing substantial environmental and economic benefits.

NASEO Wind Power Information
This National Association of State Energy Officials (NASEO) web page offers wind power information and an extensive list of links.

Danish Wind Industry Association
The Danish Wind Industry Association web site has extensive information about wind energy and technology, including a 28-minute video introducing wind technology.
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Online Resources
Distributed Generation in Texas
A Texas Public Utilities Commission web page with all the policies that are in place.

The Public Utility Commission of Texas (PUCT) prepared this manual to guide
the inclusion of distributed generation (DG) into the Texas electric system. It is intended for use by utility engineers processing distributed generation interconnection applications, as well as those considering the interconnection of distributed generation with a transmission and distribution utility. The manual includes a review of safety and technical requirements of DG installations; a copy of applicable rules, application procedures and forms; Texas utility contacts and equipment pre-certification requirements.

List of Distributed Generation Contact Persons in the Texas Utilities
Texas Wind Energy Projects
An online listing of current Texas wind projects produced by the American Wind Energy Association.
Texas Operational Wind Power Plants
Texas operational wind plants as of February 2006, produced by the Texas Renewable Energy Industries Association.
Wind Power Outlook 2007
Making the Economic Case for Small-Scale Distributed Wind
A June 2007 National Renewable Energy Laboratory paper.
Connecting to the Grid Guide 2007
The Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC) has published a new edition of its Connecting to the Grid guide. The fifth edition of this guide, published in July 2007, addresses new and lingering interconnection issues that are relevant to all distributed generation technologies, including renewables, fuel cells, microturbines, and reciprocating engines. Because the interconnection of small distributed generators remains largely in the domain of states, the guide targets state regulators, other government officials, and utility representatives.
Looking for wind energy photos? Go to this DOE site, PIX: The Photographic Information Exchange for an on-line collection of several thousand photos related to renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies. All photos are free and for public use.
OffshoreWind.ne t
This web site has an interactive map of planned offshore wind farms in North America, and answers questions about offshore wind.
Mitigation Toolbox
The toolbox provides information on the effectiveness of various methods of avoiding, minimizing, or compensating for direct and indirect impacts on wildlife caused by wind power facilities and illustrates gaps and overlaps between existing policies or guidelines and current research.
Ask an Expert!
This DOE Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) Information Center answers questions on EERE's products, services, and technology programs, refers callers to the most appropriate EERE resources, and refers qualified callers to the appropriate expert networks.
Ten Steps to Building a Wind Farm
This is an AWEA fact sheet.
Wind Energy and U.S. Energy Subsidies
An American Wind Energy Association (AWEA) 2006 fact sheet.
Texas Renewable Energy Resource Assessment
This SECO-commissioned study evaluates Texas renewable energy resources, including solar, wind, biomass, water, geothermal and building climatology. The report includes numerous maps and charts.
Wind Task Force Report 2006
The Western Governors' Association's Clean and Diversified Energy Advisory Committee (CDEAC) commissioned this task force report in February 2005.
How Wind Turbines Work
A DOE web site.
Low Wind Speed Technology
The research goal of Low Wind Speed Technology is to reduce the cost of electricity from large wind systems in class 4 winds to 3 cents/kWh for onshore systems or 5 cents/kWh for offshore systems by 2007.
Utility Wind Integration
A Utility Wind Integration Group 2006 assessment on the integration of wind generation into utility power systems. The document focuses on wind's impacts on the operating costs of the non-wind portion of the power system and on wind's impacts on the system's electrical integrity.
Wind Energy for Rural Economic Development
This presentation made at AWEA's Windpower 2006 Conference covers wind turbine sizes and applications, the evolution of U.S. commercial wind technology, capacity and cost trends, world growth market, installed wind capacities, drivers for wind power, wind cost of energy, historic natural gas prices and Renewables Portfolio Standards.
Wind Energy Guide for County Commissioners
A DOE publication.
The Effect of Windmill Farms on Military Readiness
A U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) report detailing how wind turbines can interfere with military radar.
Wind Power Animation
This DOE wind power animation demonstrates how large and small wind turbines work and how they are used.
How does a Wind Turbine Work?
This DOE site includes an aerial view of a wind power plant, a glossary and a wind turbine animation.
Guided Tour on Wind Energy
Each one of the chapters in this Danish Wind Energy Association guided tour is a self-contained unit. Topics include turbine siting, energy output, generators, turbine design, manufacturing, and the history of wind energy.
Movie: Wind Farming
The movie features a visit to the largest wind farm in New York, Maple Ridge Wind Farm, a joint venture between Horizon Wind Energy and PPM Energy.

Wind Energy Careers
Career Currents provides educators and students with resources to introduce energy careers. Each issue of Career Currents focuses on a different sector of the energy industry. This October 2006 issue focuses on careers in the wind industry.
Wind Energy Glossary
The Economics of Wind Energy

If Not Wind, What? This web site includes Wind Energy 101, Wind Energy Facts and Myths, Wind Energy and Wild Life, and a Research Center.
The Most Frequently Asked Questions About Wind Energy
An AWEA publication.
Wind Energy Myths
Analyzes the top ten myths about electricity generated from wind turbines, and provides answers based on studies from a variety of sources.
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Software
Wind Energy Finance: An Online Calculator for Economic Analysis of Wind Projects
A Wind Powering America web site. Wind Energy Finance (WEF) is a free online energy calculator, to enable quick, detailed economic evaluation of potential utility-scale wind energy projects. WEF should be used by anyone interested in evaluating the economics of potential utility scale wind energy projects. The tool is designed for those who have general experience with project financial analysis but little knowledge of wind projects. Read this WEF fact sheet and see the WEF online sign-in page (it may take awhile to download).
RETScreen International Wind Energy Project Model Software
Canada's free RETScreen International software can be used world-wide to easily evaluate the energy production, life-cycle costs and greenhouse gas emissions reduction for central-grid, isolated-grid and off-grid wind energy projects, ranging in size from large scale multi-turbine wind farms to small scale single-turbine wind-diesel hybrid systems. Version 3.0 upgrades include a Metric/Imperial unit switch; updated product data; an enhanced GHG model to account for emerging rules under the Kyoto Protocol; a Sensitivity & Risk Analysis worksheet; and the ability for users to now evaluate wind projects using wind power density data (in addition to wind speed data).
Jobs and Economic Development Impact (JEDI) Model
A Wind Powering America web site. Jedi is a free, user-friendly tool that calculates economic impacts from wind projects. It allows you to easily identify the local economic impacts associated with constructing and operating wind power plants. JEDI is for wind developers, renewable energy advocates, government officials, decision makers, and other potential users who might not have the resources to develop their own economic development model. It is designed to accommodate a broad user base with varying experience with economic development modeling. It accommodates inexperienced spreadsheet users, those unfamiliar with economic impact analysis, and more experienced and knowledgeable users who need this type of analysis.
Wind Energy Payback Period Workbook
A Wind Powering America web site. The Wind Energy Payback Workbook is a free Excel spreadsheet tool that can help you analyze the economics of a small wind electric system and decide whether wind energy will work for you.
Windustry's Wind Project Financial Calculator Tools

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References

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